Black Power in Redfern 1968



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© Gary Foley 5th October 2001.

Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker) 1970

The emergence of what might be called an Aboriginal intelligentsia is taking place in Redfern and other urban centres. It is a politically active intelligentsia I think they are the most interesting group to emerge from the political point of view in the whole of the Aboriginal community in Australia. [2]

a critical aspect of the struggle for self-determination has involved questions relating to our history as indigenous peoples and a critique of how we, as the Other, have been represented or excluded from various accounts. Every issue has been approached by indigenous peoples with a view to rewriting and rerighting our position in history The sense of history conveyed by these approaches is not the same thing as the discipline of history, and so our accounts collide, crash into each other. [14]

profound effect on the thinking of [the] Aboriginal people involved, despite its lack of short-term success. Former Cummeragunja residents who moved to Melbourne in the 1940s and 50s had learned a valuable lesson on the intransigence of the white bureaucracy and the possibility of direct and united Aboriginal action. These people and their sons and daughters became part of the core of activists who were to take a much more radical line in the Aboriginal movement for self-determination in the late 1960s. [25]

Internationally inspired, a product of cooperation between whites and blacks committed to the same ideals, confrontationist but non-violent, the Freedom Ride was a consciousness-raising exercise that was very effective. Awakening media interest in Aboriginal affairs was, for the first time, marshalled in favour of the Black Australian cause, to the severe embarrassment of many white townspeople in rural New South Wales. All of these elements foreshadowed a pattern of protest that was to continue and expand in the 1970s and 1980s. [32]

Aborigines continue to move out of their isolation into the mainstream of Australian city life [they] are no longer willing to accept the lowest position in the socio-economic scale This resurgence of Aboriginal identity has led to a change in the patterns of race relations in this country [34]

Paul's father Les had been one of the fiercest opponents of managerial rule and his mother Agnes is the chairperson of the Wiradjuri Cultural Committee. Paul's grandfather was the third of the trio who had refused to sign its agreement to the Manager's entry regulations on Erambie Station in 1955. [37]

Looking back, the only major improvement has been the 93% 'Yes' vote of the referendum of May 1967; but this improvement did not benefit the black Australians though it eased the guilty conscience of white Australians in this country and overseas. It can be regarded therefore as a victory for white Australians who formed a coalition with black Australians. Black Australians must be seen as stooges for white Australians working in the interest of white Australians. [48]

Here was the shared experience of Aboriginality. Here was the point of intersection. Foley was arrested at Central station about this time on a trumped up charge. Brindle was beaten up by Redfern police. Perkins was arrested in Alice Springs after he had rung up police to complain about a publican. What the Sydney Aborigines understood intuitively was the brutal reality of Aboriginal daily life. [50]

After fifteen years of operation, seven of them with an autonomous Aboriginal branch, one could be forgiven for wondering why the Aborigines Advancement League was not ready for black direction. It would be easy to criticise those white League members who controlled the day-today running of the organisation for not ensuring that Aborigines were able to take over the operation of the AAL, and no doubt there was at least a hint of paternalism in their unwillingness to concede that Aborigines were ready and able to take over from them. [54]

on learning from a newspaper article entitled 'Black Power in Brisbane' that the police Criminal Investigations Branch were searching for 'a group of radicals', I took my young son, Benjamin, and left town.' [67]

The Springbok Tour 1971

..we were told by a plain clothes detective that the jersey we were wearing was a national symbol and that people in the hotel found it offensive that we should be dressed this way. The detective warned us to take off our jerseys or we would be charged under the NSW Summary Offences Act. [83]

When the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory decided on April 22 last year that Australian law did not recognise Aboriginal title to land in Australia, the Government decided to review its policy relating to the Aboriginal people and their aspirations. [100]

The progress of the Aboriginal from tribesman to inmate has been a special feature of colonial administration and of white settlement in Australia. Some of the reasons have been humane, but institutions have also been a method of settling or deferring political and moral issues such as those related to rights arising from prior occupation of the land. [147]

[2] H.C. Coombs, 'Transcript of Q and A to University of Western Australia summer school' 26 January 1973 Coombs box 44 folder 369, quoted in, Rowse, Tim, Obliged to be Difficult: Nugget Coombs Legacy in Indigenous Affairs, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 106.

[3] J.C. Albert and S.E. Albert, (eds.), The Sixties Papers, Praeger, 1984, p. 105. See

[5] See, "Victorian Aborigines Advancement League Statement on Black Power 1969" in Attwood, Bain, & Andrew Markus, 1999, p. 243.

[6] Heather Goodall, Invasion to Embassy:Land in Aboriginal Politics in NSW, 1770-1972, Sydney, Allen and Unwin, 1996, p. 351.

[7] Roberta (Bobbi) Sykes, in Ann Turner (ed.), Black Power in Australia: Neville Bonner vs Bobbi Sykes, South Yarra, Heinemann Educational, 1975, p. 10.

[8] Paul Coe, in Attwood, Bain, & Andrew Markus, 1999, p.261.

[9] Bruce McGuinness, in Attwood, Bain, & Andrew Markus, p. 243.

[10] See, Markus, Andrew, Blood From a Stone, Clayton: Monash Publications in History, 1986. ,and Markus, Andrew "After the Outward Appearance: Scientists, administrators and politicians", all that dirt: An Australian 1938 Monograph, ed. Bill Gammage and Andrew Markus, Canberra, History Project Incorporated, 1982.

[11] See, B. Attwood, & J. Arnold, (Eds.) Power, Knowledge and Aborigines, Special edition of Journal of Australian Studies, La Trobe University Press, Melbourne, 1992., and Bain Attwood, & Andrew Markus, 1999., and Attwood, Bain, The making of the Aborigines, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1989.

[12] Read, Peter, Charles Perkins: A Biography, Ringwood, Penguin, 2001.

[13] See Mudrooroo, "Our Histories", Us Mob: History, Culture, Struggle: An Introduction to Indigenous Australia, Sydney, Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 175-192.

[14] Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1999, p. 28.

[16] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 35.

[17] Bain Attwood, & Andrew Markus, 1999, pp.58-59.

[18] Heather Goodall, 1996, pp. 149-152.

[20] Andrew Markus, Blood From a Stone, Clayton: Monash Publications in History, 1986, p. 10.

[21] VAAL, VAAL, Victims or Victors?: The Story of the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League, Melbourne: Hyland House, 1985, p. 27.

[22] Jack Horner, "Steadfast Pioneers", Identity, Vol.1No.5, July, 1972.

[23] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 230.

[24] VAAL, VAAL, Victims or Victors?, 1985, p.37.

[26] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 255.

[27] Heather Goodall, "Crying Out for Land Rights", in Verity Burgmann & Jenny Lee (eds.) Staining the Wattle: a peoples history of Australia since 1788, Fitzroy, McPhee Gribble, 1988, p. 194.

[28] VAAL, VAAL, Victims or Victors?, 1985, pp. 57-59., pp. 286-291.

[29] Charles Perkins, letter to Mr. A.G. Kingsmill, Chairman, NSW Aborigines Welfare Board, 18th Jan. 1956, from Bain Attwood & Andrew Markus, 1999, p. 215.

[31] "Race Tour Bus Driver Walks Out", Australian, 22 Feb. 1965.

[32] Adam Shoemaker, Black Words White Page: Aboriginal Literature 1929 - 1988, St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1989, p. 107.

[33] Lyall Munro, interview on 'Broadband', ABC Radio, 20 February 1978.

[34] Fay Gale, and Alison Brookman, Race Relations in Australia-The Aborigines, Sydney, McGraw-Hill, 1975, p. 32.

[35] Paul Coe, in Colin Tatz (ed.), Black Viewpoints: The Aboriginal Experience, Brookvale, Australia and NZ Book Co., 1975, p. 106.

[36] Richard Broome, "Historians, Aborigines and Australia", in Bain Attwood (ed.), In the Age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1996, p. 71.

[37] Peter Read, A Hundred Years War: The Wiradjuri People and the State, Canberra, ANU, 1988, p. 131.

[38] Peter Read, Charles Perkins: A Biography, Ringwood, Penguin, 2001, pp. 93 -100.

[39] G. Foley, "A Black Life", Rolling Stone, Issue 426 - Yearbook, 1988.

[40] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 338.

[41] "Introducing Paul Coe", The Australian, 23 December 1970.

[43] Roberta Sykes in Ann Turner (ed.) Black Power in Australia: Neville Bonner vs Bobbi Sykes, South Yarra, Heinemann Educational, 1975, p. 21.

[44] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 326.

[45] G. Foley, "A Black Life", Rolling Stone, Issue 426 - Yearbook, 1988.

[47] Colin Tatz (ed.), Black Viewpoints, 1975, p. 95.

[48] Walker, Kath, "Black-White Coalition Can Work", Origin, 18 Sept. 1969.

[49] Meredith Burgmann, "Old radicals never die, they just get nostalgic", Farrago, Volume 80, edition 7, October 2001, p. 24.

[50] Peter Read, 2001, pp. 132 -133.

[51] Chicka Dixon, "Chicka Dixon", in Colin Tatz (ed.), Black Viewpoints, Brookvale, Australia and NZ Book Co., 1975, p. 32.

[52] VAAL, VAAL, Victims or Victors?: The Story of the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League, Melbourne: Hyland House, 1985, p.88.

[55] Neville Bonner, letter to the editor, Courier Mail, 25 September 1969.

[56] "Black Power Looms Larger", Age, 12th Feb. 1973.

[57] See, Bobbi Sykes, "Black people want to control their own destiny", Australian, 22nd June 1972.

[58] Max Griffiths, Aboriginal Affairs: A Short History 1788 - 1995, Kenthurst, Kangaroo, 1995, p. 114.

[59] Scott Robinson, The Aboriginal Embassy 1972, MA Thesis, pp. 22-23.

[60] Scott Bennett, Aborigines and Political Power, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1989, p. 13.

[61] Chicka Dixon, "Chicka Dixon", in Colin Tatz, (ed.), Black Viewpoints: The Aboriginal Experience, Sydney, Australia & New Zealand Book Co., 1975, p. 34.

[62] Jim Haskins, Power to the People: The Rise and Fall of the Black Panther Party, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997, p. 27.

[64] Roberta Sykes, Snake Dancing: autobiography of a black woman, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1998, p.115.

[65] "Black Power Group", NSW Police Crime Surveillance Unit document 1972, in Foley Collection, Melbourne.

[66] R. Sykes, Snake Dancing: autobiography of a black woman, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1998, p.143.

[67] M. Langton, "Marcia Lynne Langton", Murawina, Sydney: Doubleday, 1993, p. 164.

[68] G. Foley, "A Black Life", Rolling Stone, Issue 426 - Yearbook, 1988.

[70] "$20,000 for Aboriginal Legal Service", The Australian, 29 December 1970, p.1.

[71] Meredith Burgman, in O'Donnell, P. and Simons, L. (eds.) Australians Against Racism: Testimonies from the anti-apartheid movement in Australia, Annandale: Pluto Press, 1995, p. 16.

[72] Denis Freney, A Map of Days: Life on the Left, Port Melbourne: William Heinemann, 1991, p. 287.

[73] Lilla Watson, "Richard Buckhorn and Lilla Watson", O'Donnell, P. and Simons, L. (eds.) Australians Against Racism: Testimonies from the anti-apartheid movement in Australia, Annandale: Pluto Press, 1995, p. 158.

[74] Denis Freney, 1991, p. 310.

[75] See, Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 337.

[77] Meredith Burgmann, Farrago, 2001, p. 24.

[78] Heather Goodall, 1996, p.267.

[79] Helen Frizeli, "After 14 years the light will not go out at 10", Sydney Morning Herald, 10 June 1971.

[80] Chris Pritchard, "'Just a game' says Evonne", Sydney Morning Herald, 16 June 1971, p. 19.

[81] Meredith Burgmann, Farrago, 2001, pp. 24-25.

[82] Jim Boyce, "Jim Boyce", in O'Donnell, P. and Simons, L. (eds.) Australians Against Racism: Testimonies from the anti-apartheid movement in Australia, Annandale: Pluto Press, 1995, pp. 24-25.

[83] Harris, Stewart, Political Football - The Springbok Tour of Australia 1971, Melbourne: Gold Star, 1972, p. 123.

[84] Dare, Tim, "The Day the Police Stole the Initiative", The Australian, 12 July 1971, p. 7.

[85] Harris, Stewart, 1972, p. 93.

[87] Ibid., pp. 122 - 123.

[88] Peter Read, 2001, p. 163.

[89] Chris Pritchard , "Aboriginal Target in Protest", Sydney Morning Herald, 1 June 1971.

[90] Stewart Harris, Political Football, 1972.

[91] Richard Zacariah & Tim Dare, "Police arrest 200 in Springbok riot", The Sunday Australian, 4 July 1971.

[92] Chris Pritchard, "Action sought on Aborigines", Sydney Morning Herald, 22 July 1971.

[93] "Six die in wild US jailbreak attempt", Sydney Morning Herald, 23 August 1971.

[94] Denis Freney, 1991, p. 312.

[95] Ibid., pp. 310-317.

[96] Editorial, The Australian, 3 January 1972, p.8.

[97] David Armstrong, "Black Power loses to stubborn Evonne", The Australian, 6 January 1972, p.1.

[98] See "Aboriginals set up militant Black Panther Movement", The Australian, 19 January 1972, p.2., and, "Panthers group announces its aims", The Age, 14 January 1972, p. 3.

[99] Denis Walker, quoted in Ningla-Ana, Dir. A. Cavadini, 90min. B&W, 1972.

[100] William McMahon, Prime Ministerial statement, Australian Aboriginals - Commonwealth Policy and Achievements, 25 January 1972, quoted from edited text in, "The PM's statement on policy", Canberra Times, 26 January 1972, p. 12.

[102] Ruby Hammond, in Margaret Forte, Flight of an Eagle: The Dreaming of Ruby Hammond, Kent Town: Wakefield Press, 1995, p.134.

[103] Heather Goodall, 1996, p. 338.

[104] Chicka Dixon, Transcript of First in Line Programme, 22 August 1989.

[105] Ibid., pp. 338-339.

[106] Gary Williams, personal interview with author, Nambucca Heads, Foley Collection, 20 December 1999.

[107] Gary Foley, in The Australian, 10 February 1972.

[108] Gary Williams, 1999.

[109] Billy Craigie, personal interview with author, Sydney, Foley Collection, 25 July 1986.

[110] Canberra News, 31 January 1972.

[111] Sydney Morning Herald, 16 May 1972.

[112] Coral Dow, "Aboriginal Tent Embassy: Icon or Eyesore?", Social Policy Group, 4 April 2000, p. 3.

[113] Bain Attwood, & Andrew Markus, 1999, p.

[114] The Age, 10 February 1972.

[115] Michelle Grattan, The Age, 23 February 1972.

[116] The Australian, 29 April 1972.

[117] Canberra News, 11 May 1972, and The Age, 12 May 1972.

[119] The Age, 21 July 1972.

[122] Stewart Harris, The Age, 29 July 1972.

[123] Scott Robinson, "The Aboriginal Embassy: an account of the Protests of 1972", Aboriginal History vol.18 (1) 1994, pp.49-63.

[124] The Age, 28 July 1972.

[125] Gary Foley, "Whiteness and Blackness in the Koori Struggle for Self-Determination: Strategic Considerations in the Struggle for Social Justice for Indigenous People", Just Policy No. 19/20, September 2000, p.80.

[126] The Bulletin, 5 August 1972.

[127] Canberra Times, 11 August 1972.

[128] The Age, 15 August 1972.

[129] Canberra Times, 13 September 1972, and The Age, 13 September 1972

[130] The Bulletin, 5 August 1972.

[131] E.G. Whitlam, The Whitlam Government 1972-1975, Ringwood, Penguin, 1985, p. 466.

[132] Bryce Fraser & Ann Atkinson (eds.) People of Australia: key events in population, society, the environment, Sydney: The Macquarie Library, 1998, pp. 17-18.

[134] G. Foley, "A Black Life", Rolling Stone, Issue 426 - Yearbook, 1988.

[135] Margaret Forte, Flight of an Eagle: The Dreaming of Ruby Hammond, Kent Town: Wakefield Press, 1995, p. 225.

[136] Attwood, Bain, & Andrew Markus, 1999, p.174.

[137] Michelle Grattan, The Age, 22 July 1972.

[138] Gough Whitlam, interview with author, Paris 1984, Foley Collection.

[139] Heather Goodall, 1996, p.351.

[140] Shirley Smith, Mum Shirl: an autobiography, Port Melbourne, Mammoth Publishing, 1992, p. 110.

[141] Margaret A. Franklin, Black and White Australians, South Yarra: Heinemann Educational, 1976, p. 1.

[143] Richard Broome, "Historians, Aborigines and Australia", in Bain Attwood (ed.), In the age of Mabo: History, Aborigines and Australia, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1996, p. 68.

[144] Richard Broome, 1996, p. 68.

[145] Henry Reynolds, quoted in, Franklin, Margaret A., Black and White Australians, South Yarra: Heinemann Educational, 1976, p. 1.

[146] W.E.H. Stanner, After the Dreaming, Sydney, 1968, pp. 22-25.

[147] C.D. Rowley, The Destruction of Aboriginal Society, Canberra: ANU Press, 1970, p. 2.

[148] Richard Broome, 1996, p. 67.

[149] Scott Bennett, Aborigines and Political Power, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1989.

[150] Franklin, Margaret Ann, Black and White Australians, South Yarra, Heinemann, 1976, pp. 198 - 212.

[151] Humphrey McQueen, Suspect History: Manning Clark and the future of Australia's past, Kent Town: Wakefield Press, 1997, p. 218.

[152] VAAL, 1985, p. 101.

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